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<p>Preface xiii</p> <p>Acknowledgements xxi</p> <p>Glossary xxv</p> <p><b>Section I The Problem of Problem Formulation 1</b></p> <p><b>1 Origins 3</b></p> <p>1.1 Why Methodology? 3</p> <p>1.2 Why Not Problem-solving? 4</p> <p>1.3 From Puzzles, Problems, to Messes 7</p> <p>1.4 The Apparent Success of Operational Research 10</p> <p>1.5 The Process of Problematisation 11</p> <p>1.6 Problem Structuring Methods 13</p> <p>1.7 Summary 15</p> <p><b>2 Wicked and Messy Problems 17</b></p> <p>2.1 On Dichotomies 17</p> <p>2.2 Wicked and Tame 18</p> <p>2.3 Swamps and High Ground 22</p> <p>2.4 Problems and Messes 24</p> <p>2.5 An Ontological Viewpoint 25</p> <p>2.5.1 Cynefin 26</p> <p>2.5.2 Wickedness and Anatomy of Complexity 26</p> <p>2.5.3 The System of Systems Methodologies 28</p> <p>2.6 The Burrell and Morgan Framework 29</p> <p>2.7 Category Mistakes and Paradigm Incommensurability 31</p> <p><b>3 A Pragmatic Framing 33</b></p> <p>3.1 Dichotomies, Again 33</p> <p>3.2 Organised Finding Out 35</p> <p>3.3 Action Is Knowledge 41</p> <p>3.4 Ways Forward 42</p> <p><b>Section II Problem Structuring Methods 45</b></p> <p><b>4 The Emergence of PSMs – A History 47</b></p> <p>4.1 The Critique of the Mainstream OR Phase: Emergence of a New Paradigm 49</p> <p>4.2 The Methodological Phase: Emergence of Core Methodologies 53</p> <p>4.3 First Reflective Period 57</p> <p>4.4 Summary 58</p> <p><b>5 Comparison of Core Methods 61</b></p> <p>5.1 Analysis of the Three Core Techniques 61</p> <p>5.2 Constitutive Rules 64</p> <p>5.3 Epistemologies 66</p> <p>5.4 Comparative Affordances of Modelling Approaches 70</p> <p>5.5 A Processual Analysis of Modelling in the Core Methodologies 76</p> <p>5.5.1 SSM 76</p> <p>5.5.2 SODA Project 79</p> <p>5.5.3 SCA 83</p> <p>5.6 Summary of Core Modelling Approaches 86</p> <p>5.7 The Influence of Computer-supported Modelling 87</p> <p>5.8 Related Approaches 87</p> <p>5.8.1 IBIS 87</p> <p>5.8.2 Causal Loop Diagrams 88</p> <p>5.9 Conclusion 93</p> <p><b>6 The Practice of Problem Structuring 95</b></p> <p>6.1 Recap 95</p> <p>6.2 Establishing a Trust Relationship 97</p> <p>6.3 Dealing with the Value Paradox 99</p> <p>6.4 Identifying Relevant Stakeholders and Dealing with Multi-organisational Contexts 103</p> <p>6.5 Being Ready to Facilitate 106</p> <p>6.6 Ethical Practice 109</p> <p>6.7 Relation to the Wider PSM Field 109</p> <p>6.8 Summary 110</p> <p>6.9 State of the Art 112</p> <p><b>Section III Problem Structuring in Engineering Practice 113</b></p> <p><b>7 Developing a Problem Structuring Sensibility in Engineering 115</b></p> <p>7.1 Introduction 115</p> <p>7.2 From Systems Engineering to Soft Systems Methodology – and Back Again 116</p> <p>7.3 Philosophy of Engineering 121</p> <p>7.4 A New Definition of Soft Systems for Engineers 122</p> <p>7.5 Systems Engineering in the Context of Systemic Cooperation 124</p> <p>7.6 Conclusions 128</p> <p><b>8 On the Theoretical Foundations of Systems Engineering 131</b></p> <p><b>9 Hierarchical Process Modelling 135</b></p> <p>9.1 Motivation 135</p> <p>9.2 Origins 136</p> <p>9.3 What Is HPM as a PSM? 138</p> <p>9.3.1 Process Epistemology 139</p> <p>9.3.2 Modelling Purpose 140</p> <p>9.3.3 How/Why Modelling Dialectic 141</p> <p>9.3.4 Measuring Process Performance with Explicit Representation of Uncertainty 142</p> <p>9.3.5 Argumentation 148</p> <p>9.4 Epistemology for HPM 148</p> <p>9.5 The Affordance of the HPM Approach 150</p> <p>9.6 Assembling into a Methodology 153</p> <p><b>10 Practical Aspects for Using HPM as a PSM 155</b></p> <p>10.1 Case Study I –STEEP and REPLICATE Projects 155</p> <p>10.2 Updating the Tool Support for the Modelling Approach 159</p> <p>10.3 Teaching Example I – ‘SuperCo’ 162</p> <p>10.4 Teaching Example II – Servitisation and the Circular Economy 167</p> <p>10.5 Teaching Example III – Heritage Railway MEng Consulting Project 167</p> <p>10.6 Case Study II – ‘Continuous Process Manufacturing Company’ 169</p> <p>10.7 Case Study III – Healthy Resilient Cities 171</p> <p>10.7.1 Workshop 175</p> <p>10.7.2 Key Findings from the Project 179</p> <p>10.7.3 Selling the Approach as a Commercial Service 180</p> <p>10.7.4 Infrastructure Interdependency 181</p> <p>10.8 Conclusions 182</p> <p><b>11 Problem Structuring in Engineering Practice 185</b></p> <p>11.1 Introduction 186</p> <p>11.2 Anticipation, Injunctions and Translations 186</p> <p>11.3 Widening Participation and Broadening the Scope 188</p> <p>11.4 Moving Away from Singular Outcomes 190</p> <p>11.5 Working with Multiple Viewpoints 190</p> <p>11.6 Being Aware of Conceptual Limitations 191</p> <p>11.7 Valuing Process Knowledge 191</p> <p><b>Section IV Evolution 195</b></p> <p><b>12 Evaluation 197</b></p> <p>12.1 Why Wait Until Now? 197</p> <p><b>13 Survey of PSM Applications 203</b></p> <p>13.1 Introduction 203</p> <p>13.2 Method of Selection 203</p> <p>13.3 Classification of PSM Applications 206</p> <p>13.4 Survey of PSM Applications by Subject Area 206</p> <p>13.5 Observations 212</p> <p>13.6 Interdisciplinarity 214</p> <p>13.7 Other Traditions 217</p> <p>13.8 Conclusions 218</p> <p><b>14 Digital Transformation Through Group Support Systems (gss) 221</b></p> <p>14.1 Motivation 221</p> <p>14.2 Experimental Setting 223</p> <p>14.3 Teaching Requirements 225</p> <p>14.4 Reflections 230</p> <p>14.5 The Effectiveness of Online Problem Structuring Practice 232</p> <p>14.6 Teaching of PSMs in an Education Setting 234</p> <p>14.7 Extension to Large Group Working 235</p> <p><b>15 New Technologies for Augmenting PSM Practice 239</b></p> <p>15.1 Augmented Qualitative Analysis (AQA) 239</p> <p>15.2 PSMs in the Age of LLMs 244</p> <p>15.3 Future Directions 251</p> <p><b>16 Setting the Agenda 253</b></p> <p>16.1 Building Links 254</p> <p>16.1.1 Towards New Disciplinary Partners in Applied Social Science 254</p> <p>16.1.2 Towards Mainstream OR 257</p> <p>16.2 Education 264</p> <p>16.3 Introducing a Processual Turn in OR 268</p> <p>Grant and Project Funding 271</p> <p>Selected Bookshelf 273</p> <p>References 275</p> <p>Index 317</p>

<p><b>Mike Yearworth BSc, PhD, MBA, MBCS, CEng,</b> is Emeritus Professor of Management Science at the University of Exeter Business School. He is Co-Editor-in-Chief of the <i>European Journal of Operational Research </i>and the Systems Engineering Field Editor for <i>Systems Research and Behavioral Science.</i>

<p><b>Current perspectives on approaches to problem structuring in operational research and engineering and prospects for problem structuring methods applicable to a wide range of practice.</b> <p>Bridging between operational research (OR) and engineering practice, <i>Problem Structuring: Methodology in Practice </i>is grounded in the emergence of soft OR and its development over time as a distinctively new field, broadening the scope of OR to deal with issues of transforming, strategising, and planning in the context of wicked problems. The book is centred on a methodological framing of intervention processes known as problem structuring methods (PSMs) and the techniques presented are suitable for practitioners across a broad range of disciplines. <p>Written by a highly qualified professor of engineering and management, <i>Problem Structuring: Methodology in Practice </i>contains four linked sections that cover: <ul><li>I. Problem formulation when dealing with wicked problems, justification for a methodological approach, the emergence of soft OR, the relevance of pragmatic philosophy to OR practice.</li> <li>II. Traces debates and issues in OR leading to the emergence of soft OR, comparative analysis of PSMs leading to a generic framework for soft OR practice, addressing practical considerations in delivering PSM interventions.</li> <li>III. Charts the emergence of a problem structuring sensibility in engineering practice, introduces a new PSM based on hierarchical process modelling (HPM) supported by teaching and case studies, makes the case for a processual turn in engineering practice supported by HPM with relevance to OR practice.</li> <li>IV. Evaluation of PSM interventions, survey of applications, use of group support systems, new developments supported by machine learning, recontextualising soft OR practice.</li></ul> <p><i>Problem Structuring: Methodology in Practice</i> is a thought-provoking and highly valuable resource relevant to all “students of problems.” It is suitable for any UK Level 7 (or equivalent) programme in OR, engineering, or applied social science where a reflective, methodological approach to dealing with wicked problems is an essential requirement for practice.

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