Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

About the IFST Advances in Food Science Book Series

List of contributors

Chapter 1: Emerging technologies in meat processing
1. 1.1 Context and challenges
2. 1.2 Book objective
3. 1.3 Book structure
4. 1.4 Conclusion

Part I: Novel processing techniques

Chapter 2: Irradiation of meat and meat products
1. 2.1 Summary
2. 2.2 Theory of irradiation of foods
3. 2.3 Irradiation equipment
4. 2.4 Future role for irradiation in the preservation of foods
5. References
Chapter 3: High-pressure processing of meat and meat products
1. 3.1 Introduction
2. 3.2 Theory of high-pressure preservation and decontamination of foods
3. 3.3 High-pressure applications
4. 3.4 High-pressure equipment
5. 3.5 Future role for high pressure in the preservation and decontamination of foods
6. References
Chapter 4: Electroprocessing of meat and meat products
1. 4.1 Introduction to electroprocessing technologies
2. 4.2 Non-thermal electroprocessing of meat
3. 4.3 Thermal electroprocessing (i.e. electroheating) of meat
4. 4.4 Future of electroprocessing of meat
5. 4.5 Equipment suppliers
6. Acknowledgements
7. References
Chapter 5: Application of infrared and light-based technologies to meat and meat products
1. 5.1 Introduction
2. 5.2 Theory of UV, IR, and high-intensity light pulse preservation of foods
3. 5.3 Infrared radiation
4. 5.4 Ultraviolet radiation
5. 5.5 High-intensity light pulses
6. 5.6 Future role for UV, IR, and high-intensity light pulses in the preservation of foods
7. References
Chapter 6: Ultrasound processing applications in the meat industry
1. 6.1 Introduction
2. 6.2 Fundamentals of ultrasound processing
3. 6.3 Ultrasound processing equipment
4. 6.4 Ultrasound for decontamination of meat
5. 6.5 Applications of ultrasound in meat processing
6. 6.6 Concluding remarks
7. References
Chapter 7: Application of hydrodynamic shock wave processing associated with meat and processed meat products
1. 7.1 Introduction
2. 7.2 Applicability of hydrodynamic shock waves on meat and meat products
3. 7.3 Approaches to the generation of hydrodynamic shock waves, and the theory and mode of action relative to muscle food applications
4. 7.4 Advantages and disadvantages of hydrodynamic shock wave
5. 7.5 Case studies: hydrodynamic shock wave treatment of meat products
6. 7.6 Developmental advances in hydrodynamic shock wave equipment
7. 7.7 Brief overview of available hydrodynamic shock wave equipment and manufacturers of hydrodynamic shock wave equipment
8. References
Chapter 8: Robotics in meat processing
1. 8.1 Introduction
2. 8.2 Application of robotics in meat processing
3. 8.3 Mechatronic and robotic systems in the food industry
4. 8.4 Case studies
5. 8.5 Future role for robotics in the processing of meat and meat products
6. References

Part II: Novel Packaging and meat functionality

Chapter 9: Packaging systems and materials used for meat products with particular emphasis on the use of oxygen scavenging systems
1. 9.1 Introduction
2. 9.2 Case-ready packaging
3. 9.3 Theory of MAP/oxygen scavenging technology for meat products
4. 9.4 Future role for novel packaging systems in the preservation of meat
5. References
Chapter 10: Smart packaging solutions encompassing nanotechnology
1. 10.1 Introduction
2. 10.2 Smart packaging
3. 10.3 Conclusion
4. References
Chapter 11: Probiotic functionality in meat
1. 11.1 Introduction
2. 11.2 Ecology of gastrointestinal tract (GIT)
3. 11.3 Identification of potential microorganisms
4. 11.4 Selection of probiotics
5. 11.5 Probiotic meat products
6. 11.6 Functionality of probiotics
7. 11.7 Disease prevention by probiotics
8. 11.8 Role of probiotics in function food development
9. 11.9 Conclusion
10. References

Part III: Assessment techniques for meat quality and safety

Chapter 12: Rapid methods for microbial analysis of meat and meat products
1. 12.1 Introduction
2. 12.2 Theory of high rapid methods
3. 12.3 Rapid method tools
4. 12.4 Future role for rapid methods in foods safety
5. References
Chapter 13: The use of hyperspectral techniques in evaluating quality and safety of meat and meat products
1. 13.1 Introduction
2. 13.2 Hyperspectral techniques
3. 13.3 Applications in evaluating quality and safety of meat and meat products
4. 13.4 Advantages and disadvantages of hyperspectral techniques in meat applications
5. 13.5 Conclusion
6. Acknowledgments
7. References
Chapter 14: Online meat quality and compositional assessment techniques
1. 14.1 Summary
2. 14.2 Introduction
3. 14.3 In vivo methods of carcass evaluation
4. 14.4 Post-mortem compositional analysis
5. 14.5 Conclusions
6. References
Chapter 15: Meat authenticity
1. 15.1 Introduction
2. 15.2 Theory of authenticity in the meat industry
3. 15.3 Authenticity methods
4. 15.4 Future role for authenticity in food
5. Reference
Chapter 16: Regulation and legislative issues
1. 16.1 Introduction
2. 16.2 Overview of principles of food regulation
3. 16.3 Food safety regulation within the European Union
4. 16.4 Meat inspection
5. 16.5 Marketing challenges: reports of adverse health effects
6. 16.6 Conclusion
7. References
Index

End User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Chapter 2: Irradiation of meat and meat products

Figure 2.1 Slugs (small cylinders) of cobalt-60, which are the building blocks of the radiation source rack.
Figure 2.2 Buildup of a typical cobalt source rack from slugs, pencil, and modules.
Figure 2.3 Decay scheme of radionuclide cobalt-60.
Figure 2.4 Depth–dose distribution in a product container irradiated from two sides with a cobalt-60 source. The curve “a”' represents the depth–dose distribution when the product is irradiated from one side only (source is at position “a”). Similarly, when the source is at position “b”, the dose distribution is represented by the curve “b”. The total dose due to irradiation from two sides is then shown as the curve “a + b”. Notice that this total dose is much more uniform than that of single-side irradiation (curves “a” and “b”).
Figure 2.5 Schematic diagram of a typical panoramic, wet-storage gamma irradiation facility.
Figure 2.6 Direct current electron beam operating principles.
Figure 2.7 Percentage depth–dose curves for a single-side electron irradiation of water. A, 1.8 MeV; B, 4.7 MeV; C, 10.6 MeV.
Figure 2.8 Depth–dose curves for two-side irradiation of a unit-density material with 5 MeV electrons.
Figure 2.9 Forward peaked emission of 5.0 MeV X-rays.
Figure 2.10 Electron beam, gamma ray, and X-ray penetration.
Figure 2.11 Rotation of product on a Palletron^TM in front of X-ray target.

Chapter 3: High-pressure processing of meat and meat products

Figure 3.1 Diagram of the principle of high-pressure equipment
Figure 3.2 Variation in resistance of various strains of foodborne pathogens
Figure 3.3 Salmonella outbreaks with “strong evidence” and their foodstuff identified origin in the European Union in 2010
Figure 3.4 Campylobacter outbreaks with “strong evidence” and their foodstuff identified origin in the European Union in 2010
Figure 3.5 Typical inactivation curve obtained following heat or high-pressure treatment.
Figure 3.6 Microbial inactivation curves modeled using Weibull equation: p < 1 concave upwards curve; p > 1 concave downwards curve; p = 1 linear curve with δ = D of the first-order model.
Figure 3.7 Pressure–temperature contour plot (iso-D contour) representing pressure (a) and temperature (b) combinations inducing the same microbial inactivation.
Figure 3.8 Phase diagram of water under pressure
Figure 3.9 Estimation of HPP food global production in 2009 (tons/year)
Figure 3.10 Carbon dioxide temperature–pressure phase diagram
Figure 3.11 Hypothesized mode of action of carbon dioxide in microbial decontamination by HPCD
Figure 3.12 Distribution of industrial high-pressure processing equipment (number of installations) around the world

Chapter 4: Electroprocessing of meat and meat products

Figure 4.1 An illustration of the application differences between ohmic, radio frequency and microwave heating of materials. (a) Frequency (f), 50–25,000 Hz (lowest); (b) f, 13.6–40.7 MHz (intermediate); (c) f, 896–2450 MHz (highest).
Figure 4.2 Relative dielectric loss factor (E″) of 5% aqueous solutions/suspensions of selected ingredients at (a) 27.12 and (b) 2450 MHz (adapted from Lyng (2005)).
Figure 4.3 (a–c) Correlations between dielectric properties (27.12 and 2450 MHz) and electrical conductivities (S/m) of 5% aqueous solutions/suspensions of selected ingredients (adapted from Lyng et al. (2005)).
Figure 4.4 An example of a typical temperature profile (surface vs centre) of a meat product placed in a preheated and a non-preheated cooker.
Figure 4.5 A comparison of the yield of conventionally versus electroheated (ohmic or radio frequency heated) meats. F: Frankfurter; WP: White Pudding; PLR: Pork Luncheon Roll; T: Turkey; SH: Shoulder Ham; LH: Leg Ham; B−: Beef (no added ingredients); B+: Beef (added ingredients). ST: Steam; RF: Radio Frequency; OH: Ohmic Heating; LTLT: Low Temperature Long Time; HTST: High Temperature Short Time.

Chapter 6: Ultrasound processing applications in the meat industry

Figure 6.1 The sound spectrum.
Figure 6.2 Acoustic cavitation phenomena.
Figure 6.3 Diffusion kinetics of NaCl from a 200 g/L brine solution into pork loins as a function of different treatments. Solid lines represent the diffusion fitted to the analytical solution of Fick's second law for rectangular geometry.
Figure 6.4 Longitudinal section observed by SEM (150×) of Longissimus dorsi muscle of pork meat brined for 120 min in 200 kg NaCl/m³ solution. CV: impact of cavitation bubble implosion on myofibril.
Figure 6.5 Production of ultrasound-assisted coating of Frankfurter-type sausages (after Heinz, unpublished results).

Chapter 7: Application of hydrodynamic shock wave processing associated with meat and processed meat products

Figure 7.1 (a) Control not ASW processed (Claus, University of Wisconsin-Madison). (b) After ASW processing (Claus, University of Wisconsin-Madison).
Figure 7.2 Porcine femur [drop Femur] Femur bone fracture by ASW.
Figure 7.3 Surface damage after ASW.
Figure 7.4 Muscle tissue separation at the adipose–lean interface after ASW.
Figure 7.5 Beef bottom rounds (non-ASW companion controls, left; ASW processed muscles, right).
Figure 7.6 Chicken breast fillet exterior (top row), interior (bottom row); before ASW (left), after ASW (right).
Figure 7.7 ASW response among beef animals.
Figure 7.8 Marination update, XSW left, control, right
Figure 7.9 Visualization of surface bacteria – E. coli (Green Fluorescent Protein labeled)
Figure 7.10 Schematic of DIL's semi-industrial prototype shock wave system.
Figure 7.11 Semi-industrial prototype shock wave system
Figure 7.12 Toroid design
Figure 7.13 Water-filled shock wave generating head.
Figure 7.14 A parabola shaped bowl with shock wave origin occurring at the focus of the parabola.
Figure 7.15 Inner tube meat restraint.
Figure 7.16 Plastic meat retaining ring.
Figure 7.17 Shock wave tunnel development.
Figure 7.18 Principal design of a shock wave processing system
Figure 7.19 Schematic of the TenderClass System
Figure 7.20 Commercial demonstration unit
Figure 7.21 Piston pressure generator

Chapter 8: Robotics in meat processing

Figure 8.1 Schematics of robotic system in the meat industry
Figure 8.2 Manual stunning suitable for halal.
Figure 8.3 Automated pig stunning.
Figure 8.4 Robotic carcass splitting system
Figure 8.5 Spine position detected by ultrasound image
Figure 8.6 Robot used for picking in the meat industry
Figure 8.7 (a) Y-cut – marked in bold black line (b) Brisket cut – flap lifted and shifted back. (c) Belly cut (d) Carcass opening cut – rip down and rear Y-cut followed by complete pelt removal.
Figure 8.8 Layout of MIRINZ shoulder fleecing machine
Figure 8.9 Process and sub-process in lamb slaughtering.
Figure 8.10 Fully automated lamb boning room – RTL Vision
Figure 8.11 Process and sub-processes involved in pig slaughtering.
Figure 8.12 Pig scalding using steam
Figure 8.13 Dehairing machine.
Figure 8.14 Interior of dehairing machine
Figure 8.15 Fully automated cutting line.
Figure 8.16 Cuts made on half pig carcass.
Figure 8.17 Middle cutting machine cuts off rib tops and separates the loin and belly automatically.

Chapter 9: Packaging systems and materials used for meat products with particular emphasis on the use of oxygen scavenging systems

Figure 9.1 Examples of commercially available case-ready raw and cooked meat products. (a) Modified atmosphere packaged and (b) skin or vacuum packaged meat products.
Figure 9.2 Tray film sealing selector guide
Figure 9.3 Cross-sectional representation of a nitrite-containing film

Chapter 11: Probiotic functionality in meat

Figure 11.1 Proposed mechanism of viable and nonviable probiotic health effects.
Figure 11.2 Theoretical basis for selection of probiotic microorganism.
Figure 11.3 Basic flowchart of the processing of fermented dry sausage with the addition of probiotic cultures.

Chapter 13: The use of hyperspectral techniques in evaluating quality and safety of meat and meat products

Figure 13.1 Schematic diagram of a line-scan hyperspectral imaging system.
Figure 13.2 A hyperspectral image as a three-dimensional data block covering spatial (x, y) and spectral (λ) information.
Figure 13.3 Schematic of four ways to acquire a hyperspectral image cube (I (x, y, λ)). Scanning directions are shown by arrows. (a) Point scan, (b) line scan, (c) area scan, (d) single shot.
Figure 13.4 Four typical hyperspectral acquisition modes. (a) Reflectance, (b) transmittance, (c) transflection, (d) interactance.
Figure 13.5 Key steps involved in building classification map, which starts from 3-D hypercube of an ST muscle and ends with its classification map. The final classification map shows that the outer borders of ST muscle are misclassified as PM (light grey boundary) and LD (dark grey, mainly on right hand side, and around border) and adjacent fat of muscle is classed as fat (white, front left component).

Chapter 14: Online meat quality and compositional assessment techniques

Figure 14.1 Application of CT scanning in pigs and 3D reconstruction of the carcass relevant parts of the pig
Figure 14.2 Relationship between magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) volume analysis and dissected weights of various tissues (L: left and R: right) from male and female pigs
Figure 14.3 Original and processed MRI images of a ham and a belly after MRI acquisition andafter image processing separating the cuts from the background and segmenting pixels intoclasses corresponding to muscle (1), subcutaneous fat (2), intermuscular fat (3), background(4), intermuscular fat/muscle partial volumes (5), and subcutaneous fat/muscle partialvolumes (6), respectively
Figure 14.4 Two-dimensional (left) and pseudo 3D (right) images from the VBS 2000 (Image courtesy of E+V GmbH, Germany)

Chapter 15: Meat authenticity

Figure 15.1 Principal component analysis of (a) mineral element in pork from organic and conventional farms. (b) Stable isotope in pork from organic and conventional farms. (c) Combine mineral element and stable isotope from organic and conventional farms. □ Organic pork, ▪ Conventional pork.

List of Tables

Chapter 2: Irradiation of meat and meat products

Table 2.1 The characteristics of ionizing radiation sources
Table 2.2 Control effect of food microorganisms by irradiation dose level
Table 2.3 Examples of the effect of increasing the energy, increasing the power, and reducing the dose on economics of X-ray irradiation of foods
Table 2.4 Ionizing radiation sources for food use
Table 2.5 X-ray processing throughput potential^*
Table 2.6 Major irradiation equipment manufacturers
Table 2.7 Gamma irradiation processing service facilities in the world
Table 2.8 Electron beam processing service facilities in the world (selected for beam energy at 5 MeV or higher)
Table 2.9 Approval of food irradiation in the United States

Chapter 3: High-pressure processing of meat and meat products

Table 3.1 Advantages and limitations of high hydrostatic pressure technology in preserving and decontaminating food products
Table 3.2 Main but nonexhaustive commercially available HP-treated products
Table 3.3 Key findings in the area of pressure-shift freezing and pressure-assisted freezing applied to meat products
Table 3.4 Main patents deposited in which high pressure is applied to meat products
Table 3.5 Some available commercial meat products
Table 3.6 Main manufacturers of industrial high-pressure processing equipment

Chapter 4: Electroprocessing of meat and meat products

Table 4.1 Summary of electroprocessing conditions and applications in food processing
Table 4.2 Summary of studies of PEF application in meat up to date
Table 4.3 Industrial scientific and medical (ISM) allocated frequency (f) bands

Chapter 5: Application of infrared and light-based technologies to meat and meat products

Table 5.1 UV resistance of Listeria strains on food contact and food surfaces
Table 5.2 US FDA CFR 21 179.39 – UV for treatment and processing foods

Chapter 6: Ultrasound processing applications in the meat industry

Table 6.1 Research findings in the application of ultrasound for meat tenderization, in chronology

Chapter 7: Application of hydrodynamic shock wave processing associated with meat and processed meat products

Table 7.1 Warner-Bratzler shear averages (peak force, kgf) for TenderClass System (TCS) processed pork loins^*
Table 7.2 Contact information for companies involved with the development and manufacturing of hydrodynamic shock wave processing equipment

Chapter 8: Robotics in meat processing

Table 8.1 Advantages and disadvantages of automation in meat industry

Chapter 9: Packaging systems and materials used for meat products with particular emphasis on the use of oxygen scavenging systems

Table 9.1 Properties of packaging materials required for use in packaging meat products
Table 9.2 Primary function of various basic materials used in packaging meat products
Table 9.3 Properties of the main gases used in MAP packaging of meat products
Table 9.4 Typical gas mixtures used in MAP of some raw, cooked, cured and processed meat products
Table 9.5 Recommended gas mixtures and gas volume for meat and meat products
Table 9.6 Typical materials used for packaging chilled meat products
Table 9.7 Advantages and disadvantages of modified atmosphere packaging for case-ready meat products
Table 9.8 Benefits of using technologies such as O₂ scavengers in packaged meat products

Chapter 11: Probiotic functionality in meat

Table 11.1 Microorganism species most commonly used as starter cultures in fermented meat products
Table 11.2 Examples of potential utilization of probiotic bacteria in meat products

Chapter 14: Online meat quality and compositional assessment techniques

Table 14.1 Comparison of various carcass evaluation techniques
Table 14.2 Selected examples demonstrating the use of ultrasound for in vivo estimation

Chapter 15: Meat authenticity

Table 15.1 The sTable isotope results for organic and conventional pork
Table 15.2 The multi-element result of organic and conventional pork

Chapter 16: Regulation and legislative issues

Table 16.1 Food legislation – general areas

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Title: Emerging technologies in meat processing : production, processing and technology / [edited] by

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Forthcoming titles in the IFST series

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Ultrasound in Food Processing: Recent Advances, edited by Mar Villamiel, Jose Vicente Garcia-Perez, Antonia Montilla, Juan Andrés Cárcel and Jose Benedito

Herbs and Spices: Processing Technology and Health Benefits, edited by Mohammad B. Hossain, Nigel P. Brunton and Dilip K Rai

List of contributors

Dong U. Ahn Department of Animal Science, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
Cristina Arroyo Institute of Food and Health, UCD, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
James R. Claus Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Science and Muscle Biology Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA
Malco Cruz-Romero Food Packaging Group, School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
Patrick J. Cullen School of Food Science & Environmental Health, Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland, School of Chemical Engineering, New South Wales University, Sydney, Australia
Enda J. Cummins UCD School of Biosystems and Food Engineering, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
Maeve Cushen UCD School of Biosystems and Food Engineering, Agriculture and Food Science Centre, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland.
Agapi Doulgeraki Laboratory of Microbiology and Biotechnology of Foods, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Michel Federighi INRA UMR1014 SECALIM, Nantes, France; LUNAM Université, Oniris, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
Jesús M. Frías School of Food Science and Environmental Health, Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland
Sandrine Guillou INRA UMR1014 SECALIM, Nantes, France; LUNAM Université, Oniris, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
Cheorun Jo Department of Animal Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Department of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
Kompal Joshi School of Food Science and Environmental Health, Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland
Joseph P. Kerry School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Co Cork, Ireland
Muhammad Issa Khan National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan; Researcher, Department of Animal Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul
Tatiana Koutchma Guelph Food Research Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Guelph, ON, Canada
Fiona Lalor School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Population Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Marion Lerasle INRA UMR1014 SECALIM, Nantes, France; LUNAM Université, Oniris, Université de Nantes, Nantes, France
James G. Lyng Institute of Food and Health, UCD, Dublin, Ireland
N.N. Misra School of Food Science & Environmental Health, Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland
Ki Chang Nam Department of Animal Science and Technology, Sunchon National University, Sunchon, Korea
Tomas Norton Agricultural Engineering Department, Harper-Adams University College, Newport, UK
George-John Nychas Laboratory of Microbiology and Biotechnology of Food, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Efstathios Panagou Laboratory of Microbiology and Biotechnology of Foods, Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens, Greece
Kumari Shikha Ojha Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin, Ireland
Hélène Simonin UMR Procédés Alimentaires et Microbiologiques, équipe PMB, AgroSup Dijon, France; Université de Bourgogne, Dijon, France
Da-Wen Sun Food Refrigeration and Computerised Food Technology (FRCFT), School of Biosystems Engineering, University College Dublin, National University of Ireland, Agriculture & Food Science Centre, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland.
Brijesh K. Tiwari Department of Food Biosciences, Teagasc Food Research Centre, Dublin, Ireland; Manchester Food Research Centre, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK; Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin, Ireland
Ubaid-ur-Rahman National Institute of Food Science and Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
Patrick Wall School of Public Health, Physiotherapy and Population Science, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
Di Wu Food Refrigeration and Computerised Food Technology (FRCFT), School of Biosystems Engineering, University College Dublin, National University of Ireland, Agriculture and Food Science Centre, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland
Yan Zhao Institute of Quality Standard & Testing Technology for Agro Products, Key Laboratory of Agro product Quality and Safety, Chinese Academy of Agriculture Sciences, Beijing, China; Key Laboratory of Agro-product Quality and Safety, Ministry of Agriculture, Beijing, China

Chapter 1
Emerging technologies in meat processing

Enda J. Cummins¹ & James G. Lyng²

¹Biosystems and Food Engineering, UCD, Dublin, Ireland

²Institute of Food and Health, UCD, Dublin, Ireland

1.1 Context and challenges

Meat is a global product, which is traded between regions, countries and continents. The onus is on producers, manufacturers, transporters and retailers to ensure an ever-demanding consumer receives a top-quality product that is free from contamination. With such a dynamic product and market place, new innovative ways to process, package and assess meat products are being developed. In some instances, industry uptake of new technologies is stifled by a lack of knowledge about these new technologies and their impact on product quality and safety. With ever-increasing competition and tighter cost margins, industry has shown willingness to engage in seeking novel innovative ways of processing, packaging and assessing meat products while maintaining quality and safety attributes. Several new technologies have emerged with regard to meat processing, packaging and quality assessment, which have the potential to improve production efficiency while maintaining meat safety and quality. A number of novel thermal and non-thermal technologies designed to achieve microbial safety while minimising the effects on its nutritional and quality attributes have also become available.

Minimising changes in quality and safety during processing is a considerable challenge for food processors and technologists. Thus, there is a requirement for detailed industrially relevant information concerning emerging technologies in meat product manufacture. In addition, industrial adoption of novel processing techniques is in its infancy. Applications of new and innovative technologies and resulting effects to those food products either individually or in combination are always of great interest to academic, industrial, nutrition and health professionals.

1.2 Book objective

The primary objective of this book on Emerging Technologies in Meat Processing is to provide a comprehensive overview of the application of novel processing techniques as applied to the meat industry. The book evaluates recent advances on how meat is produced, processed and stored and is a benchmark reference book on novel processing, packaging and assessment methods of meat and meat products.

1.3 Book structure

Meat processors have a major responsibility to consumers when it comes to producing quality, nutritious and particularly safe foods. Conventional methods of meat processing and preservation (e.g. heat processing, low-temperature preservation or dehydration) have been used for hundreds of years. However, the last century has witnessed a dramatic increase in the development of new technologies, which have, in many cases, been hyped as replacements for conventional methods. However, in spite of much excitement relating to their discovery and potential, the anticipated uptake by industry has not occurred. In many cases, alternative technologies are still expensive in terms of capital outlay and are therefore not attractive options for processors, although they are generally becoming cheaper as time progresses. The reason for the lack of uptake most likely runs deeper than financial, as in many cases the alternatives are more economic or produce a higher quality product than conventional methods so that processors could recoup the initial capital outlay in reduced running costs or by charging higher prices for a premium quality product. It is most likely that the biggest obstacle these technologies face is a lack of basic understanding of their potential and, more importantly, when it comes to preservation, an unwillingness to trust the alternative methods compared to the tried and tested conventional methods. This book does not set out to try and convince food processors to drop conventional methods and replace them with alternatives. Instead, in Part 1, it sets to review alternative or novel processing techniques reinforcing the positive aspects of each operation and also discussing areas of weakness. Part 2 sets out an overview of alternative packaging solutions and meat functionality, clearly listing advantages and disadvantages and providing the reader with case studies where these technologies have been used. Part 3 reviews advances in assessment techniques for improved meat quality and safety.

Part 1 (processing techniques) consists of a number of chapters on novel processing techniques for the meat industry. Recent developments in irradiation, high-pressure processing, electroprocessing, light-based technologies, ultrasound, robotics and other emerging technologies are discussed with emphasis on operational principles and inherent strengths and weaknesses of the technologies. In Chapter 2, the various sources of ionising radiation are described and distinguished. The mode of action is described and the advantages and disadvantages of irradiation are considered. The chapter finishes with a section outlining the author's view of the future for irradiation. Chapter 3 reviews the history of high preservation, and typical pressures used for meat preservation is put in context. The mode of action of high pressure in meat preservation is discussed, as are its advantages and disadvantages. While a lot has been published, more work needs to be done (e.g. pressure resistance problems, which can be overcome by combining pressure with either mild heat or cold) and the future for high pressure is considered in the final section of this chapter.

Electroprocessing has seen many technological developments in recent years. Chapter 4 begins with the classic categorisation of the different forms of electroheating in terms of the electromagnetic spectrum and then goes on to clearly describe and distinguish the heating mechanism of each. A central portion of the chapter is the presentation of case studies outlining situations where each of the electroheating technologies has been used to preserve products commercially or has undergone research and development to a form, which is suitable for commercial application. Chapter 5 focuses on the application of infrared and light-based technologies to meat and meat products. It has been suggested that magnetic UV, IR and high-intensity light pulses all have potential in meat preservation. Some forms are not always suitable for direct application but still have an important role to play in preservation as they can be used for applications such as sterilising packaging, contact surfaces or air within packaging equipment. These forms of electromagnetic radiation can be used in a number of forms (e.g. near vs far infrared) and the identification of where the various forms fit into the electromagnetic spectrum is achieved using a standardised electromagnetic spectrum diagram. This chapter explores the application, interactions and equipment associated with these light-based technologies in addition to illustrating practical case studies.

Chapter 6 begins where the fundamentals of ultrasonics are outlined and high-intensity versus low-intensity forms of ultrasound are distinguished. This is followed by a section in which ultrasonic equipment and specific industry-relevant case studies are discussed. The use of ultrasound for the decontamination of meat forms a central part of this chapter. It finishes with conclusions regarding the possible future for ultrasonics in meat preservation. Chapter 7 introduces the operational principles of emerging technologies such as the hydrodynamic shock wave, with particular emphasis on applications, mode of operation, advantages and disadvantages of the technology. The chapter concludes with some developmental advances in the technology. Part 1 of the book concludes with Chapter 8 which provides an overview of the use and application of robotics in meat processing. The chapter provides details for product handling and processing with emphasis on inherent strengths and weaknesses. The chapter is illustrated by relevant case studies and provides a reference for currently available robotic equipment. The chapter finishes by providing a synopsis of the likely future role for robotics in meat processing.

Part 2 of the book deals with novel packaging and meat functionality. Recently the area of meat packaging has seen many new developments. This section reports on these developments and implications for shelf life, meat safety and quality. In particular, developments in novel packaging systems and smart packaging of meats are evaluated. Chapter 9 considers novel packaging solutions for meat products including the use of case-ready packaging with emphasis on modified atmospheric packaging and oxygen scavenging systems. The operational principles are detailed along with advantage and disadvantages of the technologies. The chapter concludes with a synopsis of the likely future role that novel packaging will play in the preservation of meat products. Packaging in the future is likely to be more than just a physical container that provides food with protection from the surrounding environment. Chapter 10 analyses the theory, mode of action and role of smart packaging systems in today's meat industry. The recent developments of nanotechnology in smart packaging systems are also discussed. In Chapter 11, the authors look at functionality in the meat product itself, with a focus on probiotics for meat products.

Rapid detection of pathogens and microbial contaminants is essential for ensuring meat quality and safety. Part 3 of this book looks at developments in rapid methods for microbial analysis. In addition, carcass evaluation technology and assessment of meat quality characteristics using computer vision and spectral techniques are evaluated. The section finishes with an assessment of meat authenticity.

Rapid detection of pathogens and microbial contaminants is essential for ensuring meat quality and safety and forms the basis of Chapter 12. Traditional detection methods have relied on time-consuming media culture methods with isolation. There have been a number of new innovations in methods for the microbiological analysis of meat. An array of rapid methods has been developed to make detection and identification faster, more convenient, more sensitive and more specific than conventional assays. This chapter assesses developments in this field and provide a synopsis of rapid methods of assessment. Chapter 13 focus on the use of hyperspectral techniques in evaluating quality and safety of meat and meat products. Spectral imaging techniques have emerged as techniques capable of detecting microbes in a non-destructive and rapid way. Case studies are reviewed and details on advantages and disadvantages of the technology are discussed.

Chapter 14 looks at carcass evaluation techniques with particular emphasis on in vivo methods (ultrasound, X-ray computed tomography (CT) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)/magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)). Methods available for the prediction of body and carcass composition are evaluated. Methods for predicting composition of carcasses including video image analysis (VIA), total body electrical conductivity (TOBEC) and bioelectrical impedance are discussed. Chapter 15 addresses the issue of meat authenticity. With an ever-expanding, open and globalised market place, meat products can be freely transported around the world. As illustrated in previous public health scares (e.g. dioxins in pork), consumer confidence in the meat industry is reliant on effective safety and authenticity. This chapter looks at recent developments in this field including the use of different authenticity techniques. The book concludes with Chapter 16 which provides an overview of the current role of food regulation practices within the European Union (EU) and internationally. International trade law, with emphasis on international food safety systems and food safety regulation within the EU, is discussed in addition to issues surrounding food marketing. The chapter concludes with a perspective on global trends and marketing challenges.

1.4 Conclusion

Emerging technologies do play an important role and have advantages for both processors and consumers. However, any likely uptake in the short term will be as part of a hurdle or minimal processing strategy in conjunction with conventional methods. The long-term success and uptake of emerging technologies depends on practicing food professionals receiving continued exposure to technological possibilities coupled with the education of new graduates of their potential. This text will serve as a comprehensive reference book for students, educators, researchers and food processors providing an up-to-date insight into emerging technologies for meat manufacture. The range of processes covered provides engineers and scientists working in the meat and food industries with a valuable resource for their work. Given the emphasis on novel technologies, the text is expected to have broad and significant appeal. This book can be a valuable reference book for companies, research institutions and universities active in the areas of meat processing, safety and quality evaluation.